Synthesized, surface-functionalized, acidified metal oxide materials for energy storage, catalytic, photovoltaic and sensor applications

ABSTRACT

An acidified metal oxide (“AMO”) material, preferably in monodisperse nanoparticulate form 20 nm or less in size, having a pH&lt;7 when suspended in a 5 wt % aqueous solution and a Hammett function H0&gt;−12, at least on its surface. The AMO material is useful in applications such as a battery electrode, catalyst, or photovoltaic component.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO CO-PENDING APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Ser. No. 15/352,388, filedon Nov. 15, 2016, which in turn claimed the benefit of U.S. 62/256,065and 62/256,059, both filed on Nov. 16, 2015, and incorporated byreference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention is in the field of materials useful in chemical energystorage and power devices such as, but not limited to, batteries. Morespecifically, the invention relates to synthesized, acidified metaloxide (“AMO”) nanomaterials for use in applications such aselectrochemical cell materials (batteries), catalysts, photovoltaiccomponents, and sensors.

Metal oxides are compounds in which oxygen is bonded to metal, having ageneral formula M_(m)O_(x). They are found in nature but can beartificially synthesized. In synthetic metal oxides the method ofsynthesis can have broad effects on the nature of the surface, includingits acid/base characteristics. A change in the character of the surfacecan alter the properties of the oxide, affecting such things as itscatalytic activity and electron mobility. The mechanisms by which thesurface controls reactivity, however, are not always well characterizedor understood. In photocatalysis, for example, the surface hydroxylgroups are thought to promote electron transfer from the conduction bandto chemisorbed oxygen molecules.

Despite the importance of surface characteristics, the metal oxideliterature, both scientific papers and patents, is largely devoted tocreating new, nanoscale, crystalline forms of metal oxides for improvedenergy storage and power applications. Metal oxide surfacecharacteristics are ignored and, outside of the chemical catalysisliterature, very little innovation is directed toward controlling oraltering the surfaces of known metal oxides to achieve performancegoals.

The chemical catalysis literature is largely devoted to the creation of“superacids”—acidity greater than that of pure sulfuric acid (18.4 MH₂SO₄)—often used for large-scale reactions such as hydrocarboncracking. Superacidity cannot be measured on the traditional pH scale,and is instead quantified by Hammet numbers. Hammet numbers (Ho) can bethought of as extending the pH scale into negative numbers below zero.Pure sulfuric acid has an H₀ of −12.

There are, however, many reaction systems and many applications forwhich superacidity is too strong. Superacidity may, for example, degradesystem components or catalyze unwanted side reactions. However, aciditymay still be useful in these same applications to provide enhancedreactivity and rate characteristics or improved electron mobility.

The battery literature teaches that acidic groups are detrimental inbatteries, where they can attack metal current collectors and housingsand cause deterioration in other electrode components. Further, theprior art teaches that an active, catalytic electrode surface leads toelectrolyte decomposition which can result in gas generation within thecell and ultimately in cell failure.

A need exists for a synthetic metal oxide that is acidic but notsuperacidic at least on its surface.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A material according to this invention is a synthesized, acidified metaloxide (“AMO”), preferably in monodisperse nanoparticulate form 20 nm orless in size, having a pH<7 when suspended in a 5 wt % aqueous solutionand a Hammett function H₀>−12, at least on its surface. The AMO materialis useful in applications such as a battery electrode, catalyst,photovoltaic component, or sensor.

Preferably, synthesis and surface functionalization are accomplished ina “single-pot” hydrothermal method in which the surface of the metaloxide is functionalized as the metal oxide is being synthesized fromappropriate precursors. This single-pot method does not require anyadditional step or steps for acidification beyond those required tosynthesize the metal oxide itself, and results in an AMO material havingthe desired surface acidity (but not superacidic).

In a preferred embodiment, surface functionalization occurs using strongelectron-withdrawing groups (“EWGs”)—such as SO₄, PO₄, orhalogens—either alone or in some combination with one another. Surfacefunctionalization may also occur using EWGs that are weaker than SO₄,PO₄, or halogens. For example, the synthesized metal oxides may besurface-functionalized with acetate (CH₃COO), oxalate (C₂O₄), andcitrate (C₆H₅O₇) groups.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows differences in the cyclic voltammagram of AMO tin preparedby the method disclosed herein relative to that of commerciallyavailable, non-AMO tin when cycled against Li.

FIG. 2 shows the total reflectance of AMO tin oxide is different thanthat of commercially available, non-AMO tin oxide.

FIG. 3 is X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) data showing surfacefunctionalization arising endogeneously from the synthesis methoddisclosed herein. Numbers shown are atomic concentrations in %. The farright column lists the corresponding pH of the synthesized nanoparticlesas measured when dispersed at 5 wt % in aqueous solution.

FIG. 4 shows differences in morphology between AMO nanoparticlessynthesized under identical conditions except for the use of a differentgroup for functionalization.

FIG. 5 shows the difference in morphology and performance of AMOnanoparticles synthesized under identical conditions except for havingtwo different total reaction times.

FIG. 6 is representative half-cell data showing differences in behaviorbetween spherical and elongated (needle-like or rod-like) AMOs uponcycling against lithium.

FIG. 7 is X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of the surface ofAMO nanoparticles synthesized using both a strong (phosphorouscontaining) and weak (acetate) electron withdrawing group shows greateratomic concentration of phosphorous than of the bonds associated withacetate groups.

FIG. 8A shows an AMO which was more active than another AMO in visiblelight.

FIG. 8B shows an AMO which was more active than other AMOs inultraviolet light.

FIG. 9 is a graph comparing two AMOs, one having higher capacity for usein a primary (single use) battery application and the other havinghigher cyclability for use in a secondary (rechargeable) batteryapplication.

FIG. 10 shows AMOs can result in enhanced battery performance, withoutdeterioration of battery components or gas generation.

DEFINITIONS

For the purposes of this disclosure, the following terms have thefollowing meanings:

Acidic oxide—a term used generally in the scientific literature to referto binary compounds of oxygen with a nonmetallic element. An example iscarbon dioxide, CO₂. The oxides of some metalloids (e.g., Si, Te, Po)also have weakly acidic properties in their pure molecular state.

Acidified metal oxide (“AMO”)—a term used here to denote a binarycompound of oxygen with a metallic element which has been synthesized ormodified to have an acidity greater than that of its naturalmineralogical state and also a Hammet function, H₀>−12 (notsuperacidic). The average particle size is also less than that of thenatural mineralogical state. Naturally occurring mineralogical forms donot fall within the scope of the inventive AMO material. A synthesizedmetal oxide, however, that is more acidic than its most abundantnaturally occurring mineralogical form (of equivalent stoichiometry) butnot superacidic falls within the bounds of this disclosure and can besaid to be an AMO material provided it satisfies certain otherconditions discussed in this disclosure.

Acidic—a term used generally in the scientific literature to refer tocompounds having a pH of less than 7 in aqueous solution.

Electron-withdrawing group (“EWG”)—an atom or molecular group that drawselectron density towards itself. The strength of the EWG is based uponits known behavior in chemical reactions. Halogens, for example areknown to be strong EWGs. Organic acid groups such as acetate are knownto be weakly electron withdrawing.

Hammet function—An additional means of quantifying acidity in highlyconcentrated acid solutions and in superacids, the acidity being definedby the following equation: H₀=pK_(BH+)+log([B]/[BH+]). On this scale,pure 18.4 molar H₂SO₄ has a H₀ value of −12. The value H₀=−12 for puresulfuric acid must not be interpreted as pH=−12, instead it means thatthe acid species present has a protonating ability equivalent to H₃O⁺ ata fictitious (ideal) concentration of 10¹² mol/L, as measured by itsability to protonate weak bases. The Hammett acidity function avoidswater in its equation. It is used herein to provide a quantitative meansof distinguishing the AMO material from superacids. The Hammet functioncan be correlated with colorimetric indicator tests and temperatureprogrammed desorption results.

Metal oxide—a term used generally in the scientific literature to referto binary compounds of oxygen with a metallic element. Depending ontheir position in the periodic table, metal oxides range from weaklybasic to amphoteric (showing both acidic and basic properties) in theirpure molecular state. Weakly basic metal oxides are the oxides oflithium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, rubidium, strontium,indium, cesium, barium and tellurium. Amphoteric oxides are those ofberyllium, aluminum, gallium, germanium, astatine, tin, antimony, leadand bismuth.

Monodisperse—characterized by particles of uniform size which aresubstantially separated from one another, not agglomerated as grains ofa larger particle.

pH—a functional numeric scale used generally in the scientificliterature to specify the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.It is the negative of the logarithm of the concentration of thehydronium ion [H₃O⁺]. As used here it describes the relative acidity ofnanoparticles suspended in aqueous solution.

Surface functionalization—attachment of small atoms or molecular groupsto the surface of a material.

Superacid—substances that are more acidic than 100% H₂SO₄, having aHammet function, H₀<−12.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The preferred embodiments described here provide illustrative examplesof acidified metal oxides (“AMOs”) materials useful in applications suchas a battery electrode, catalyst, or photovoltaic component. The surfaceof these AMO materials is acidic but not superacidic.

The surfaces of metal oxides are ideally arrays of metal and oxygencenters, ordered according to the crystalline structure of the oxide. Inreality the arrays are imperfect, being prone to vacancies, distortion,and the effects of surface attachments. Regardless, any exposed metalcenters are cationic (positively charged) and can accept electrons, thusfunctioning by definition as Lewis acid sites. Oxygen centers areanionic (negatively charged) and act as Lewis base sites to donateelectrons. This leads to the well-known amphotericity of metal oxidesurfaces.

Under normal atmospheric conditions, the presence of water vapor willadsorb to the metal oxide surface either molecularly (hydration) ordissociatively (hydroxylation). Both OH− and H+ species can adsorb onthe oxide surface. The negatively-charged hydroxyl species will attachat the metal, cationic (Lewis acid, electron accepting) centers, and theH+ will attach at the oxygen, anionic (Lewis base, electron donating)centers. Both adsorptions lead to the presence of the same functionalgroup—a hydroxyl—on the metal oxide surface.

These surface hydroxyl groups can serve as either Brønsted acids or asBrønsted bases, because the groups can either give up or accept aproton. The tendency of an individual hydroxyl group to be a protondonor or a proton acceptor is affected by the coordination of the metalcation or oxygen anion to which it is attached. Imperfections of themetal oxide surface such as oxygen vacancies, or coordination of thesurface groups with other chemical species, mean that all cations andanions are not equally coordinated. Acid-base sites will vary in numberand in strengths. When broadly “totaled” across the surface of theoxide, this can give the surface an overall acidic or basic character.

The quantity and strength of Lewis acid and base sites—from the exposedmetal cations and oxygen anions, respectively) and Brønsted acid andbase sites (from the surface hydroxyl groups)—add broad utility andfunctionality to the metal oxide and its use in both chemical reactionsand device applications. The sites are a strong contributor to thechemical reactivity of the metal oxide. They can serve as anchor sitesto which other chemical groups, and even additional metal oxides, may beattached. And they can affect surface charge, hydrophilicity andbiocompatibility.

One way of altering the surface of metal oxides is to attach smallchemical groups or electron-withdrawing groups (“EWGs”) in a processknown as surface functionalization. The EWG induces polarization of thehydroxide bonds and facilitates dissociation of hydrogen. For example, astronger EWG should lead to a more polarized bond and therefore a moreacidic proton. The acidity of Lewis sites can be increased by inducingpolarization that facilitates the donation of electrons to the site.When compounds so made are placed in water, the acidic protons willdissociate and so reduce the aqueous pH measurement.

Though somewhat imprecise when working with solid acid/base systemsrather than liquid ones, traditional methods of pH measurement utilizingtitrations, pH paper and pH probes can be used to evaluate the acidityof metal oxides dispersed in aqueous solution. These measurements can besupplemented by the use of techniques including but not limited tocolorimetric indicators, infrared spectroscopy, and temperatureprogrammed desorption data to establish the acidified nature of themetal oxide surface. Surface groups can be examined by standardanalytical techniques including but not limited to x-ray photoelectronspectroscopy.

Surface functionalization can be accomplished post-synthesis, includingbut not limited to exposing the metal oxide to acidic solutions or tovapors containing the desired functional groups. It can also beaccomplished via solid state methods, in which the metal oxide is mixedand/or milled with solids containing the desired functional groups.However, all of these methods require an additional surfacefunctionalization step or steps beyond those required to synthesize themetal oxide itself.

Synthesis and surface functionalization of the AMO material may beaccomplished in a “single-pot” hydrothermal synthesis method or itsequivalent in which the surface of the metal oxide is functionalized asthe metal oxide is being synthesized from appropriate precursors. Aprecursor salt containing an EWG is solubilized and the resultingsolution is acidified using an acid containing a second EWG. Thisacidified solution is then basified and the basified solution is heatedthen washed. A drying step produces the solid AMO material.

By way of example, a preferred embodiment of an AMO form of tin oxidewas synthesized and simultaneously surface functionalized using thefollowing single-pot method:

-   -   1. Initially, seven grams (7 g) of a tin (II) chloride dihydrate        (SnCl₂ 2H₂O) is dissolved in a solution of 35 mL of absolute        ethanol and 77 mL distilled water.    -   2. The resulting solution is stirred for 30 minutes.    -   3. The solution is acidified by the addition of 7 mL of 1.2M        HCl, added dropwise, and the resulting solution is stirred for        15 minutes.    -   4. The solution is basified by the addition of 1M of an aqueous        base, added dropwise until the pH of the solution is about 8.5.    -   5. The resulting opaque white suspension is then placed in a        hot-water bath (˜60° to 90° C.) for at least 2 hours while under        stirring.    -   6. The suspension is then washed with distilled water and with        absolute ethanol.    -   7. The washed suspension is dried at 100° C. for 1 hour in air        and then annealed at 200° C. for 4 hours in air.        This method results in an AMO of tin, surface-functionalized        with chlorine, whose pH is approximately 2 when measured in an        aqueous solution at 5 wt % and room temperature. By definition        its Hammet function, H₀>−12. Although an open system such as a        flask is described here, a closed system such as an autoclave        may also be used.

A person skilled in the art would recognize the method's parameters canbe varied as is typical in hydrothermal synthesis. These parametersinclude, but are not limited to, type and concentration of reagents,type and concentration of acid and base, reaction time, temperature andpressure, stir rate and time, number and types of washing steps, timeand temperature of drying and calcination, and gas exposure duringdrying and calcination. Variations may be conducted singly, or in anycombination, preferably using experimental design methodologies.Additionally, other metal oxide synthesis methods—e.g., spray pyrolysismethods, vapor phase growth methods, electrodeposition methods, solidstate methods, and hydro- or solvo thermal process methods—might beadaptable to achieve the same or similar results as the method disclosedhere.

The performance characteristics of the AMO nanomaterial differ fromthose of non-acidified metal oxide nanoparticles. As one example, FIG. 1shows differences in the cyclic voltammagram of AMO tin prepared by thesingle-pot method relative to that of commercially available, non-AMOtin when cycled against Li. As another example, FIG. 2 shows the totalreflectance of AMO tin oxide is different than that of commerciallyavailable, non-AMO tin oxide. The data indicates that the AMO has alower band gap and therefore more desirable properties as a component ofa photovoltaic system.

The AMO material may be thought of as having the general formulaM_(m)O_(x)/Gwhere

-   -   M_(m)O_(x) is the metal oxide, m being at least 1 and no greater        than 5, x being at least 1 and no greater than 21;    -   G is at least one EWG that is not hydroxide, and    -   / simply makes a distinction between the metal oxide and the        EWG, denoting no fixed mathematical relationship or ratio        between the two.        G may represent a single type of EWG, or more than one type of        EWG.

The preferred AMOs are acidified tin oxides (SnxO_(y)), acidifiedtitanium dioxides (Ti_(a)O_(b)), acidified iron oxides (Fe_(c)O_(d)),and acidified zirconium oxide (Zr_(e)O_(f)). Preferredelectron-withdrawing groups (“EWGs”) are Cl, Br, BO₃, SO₄, PO₄ andCH₃COO. Regardless of the specific metal or EWG, the AMO material isacidic but not superacidic, yielding a pH<7 when suspended in an aqueoussolution at 5 wt % and a Hammet function, H₀>−12, at least on itssurface.

The AMO material structure may be crystalline or amorphous (or acombination thereof), and may be utilized singly or as composites incombination with one another, with non-acidified metal oxides, or withother additives, binders, or conductive aids known in the art. The AMOmaterial may be added to a conductive aid material such as graphite orconductive carbon (or their equivalents) in a range of 10 wt % to 80 wt% and upwards of 90 wt % to 95 wt %. In preferred embodiments, the AMOwas added at 10 wt %, 33 wt %, 50 wt %, and 80 wt %.

To maximize the amount of overall surface area available, the AMO shouldbe in nanoparticulate form (i.e., less than 1 micron in size) andsubstantially monodispersed. More preferably, the nanoparticulate sizeis less than 100 nm and, even more preferably, less than 20 nm or 10 nm.

Mixed-metal AMOs, in which another metal or metal oxide is present inaddition to the simple, or binary oxide, also have been reduced topractice. These mixed-metal AMOs may be thought of as having the generalformulaM_(m)N_(n)O_(x)/G and M_(m)N_(n)R_(r)O_(x)/Gwhere:

-   -   M is a metal and m is at least 1 and no greater than 5;    -   N is a metal and n is greater than zero and no greater than 5;    -   R is a metal and r is greater than zero and no greater than 5;    -   O is total oxygen associated with all metals and x is at least 1        and no greater than 21;    -   / simply makes a distinction between the metal oxide and the        electron-withdrawing surface group, denoting no fixed        mathematical relationship or ratio between the two; and    -   G is at least one EWG that is not hydroxide.        G may represent a single type of EWG, or more than one type of        EWG.

Some prior art mixed metal oxide systems, of which zeolites are the mostprominent example, display strong acidity even though each simple oxidedoes not. Preferred embodiments of the mixed-metal AMO of thisdisclosure differ from those systems in that any embodiment must includeat least one AMO which is acidic (but not superacidic) in simpleM_(m)O_(x)/G form. Preferred mixed metal and metal oxide systems areSn_(x)Fe_(c)O_(y+d) and Sn_(x)Ti_(a)O_(y+b), where y+d and y+b may be aninteger or non-integer value.

In a preferred embodiment, the mixed metal AMO material is produced viathe single-pot method with one modification: synthesis begins with twometal precursor salts rather than one, in any proportion. For example,Step 1 of the single-pot method may be altered as follows: Initially,3.8 g of tin (II) chloride dihydrate (SnCl₂ 2H₂O) and 0.2 g of lithiumchloride (LiCl) are dissolved in a solution of 20 mL of absolute ethanoland 44 mL distilled water.

Three metal precursor salts could also be used, in any proportion. Themetal precursor salts could have the same or differing anionic groups,depending on the desired product; could be introduced at differentpoints in the synthesis; or could be introduced as solids or introducedin a solvent.

Experimentation with the single-pot method led to seven key findings.First, in all cases both surface functionalization and acidity ariseendogenously (see FIG. 3), rather than created post-synthesis. Unlikeprior art surface functionalization methods, the single-pot method doesnot require any additional step or steps for surface functionalizationbeyond those required to synthesize the metal oxide itself, nor does itmake use of hydroxyl-containing organic compounds or hydrogen peroxide.

Second, the method is broadly generalizable across a wide range of metaloxides and EWGs. Using the method, metal oxides of iron, tin, antimony,bismuth, titanium, zirconium, manganese, and indium have beensynthesized and simultaneously surface-functionalized with chlorides,sulfates, acetates, nitrates, phosphates, citrates, oxalates, borates,and bromides. Mixed metal AMOs of tin and iron, tin and manganese, tinand manganese and iron, tin and titanium, indium and tin, antimony andtin, aluminum and tin, lithium and iron, and lithium and tin also havebeen synthesized. Additionally, surface functionalization can beaccomplished using EWGs that are weaker than halogens and SO₄ yet stillproduce acidic but not superacidic surfaces. For example, the methodalso has been used to synthesize AMOs surface-functionalized withacetate (CH₃COO), oxalate (C₂O₄), and citrate (C₆H₅O₇).

Third, there is a synergistic relationship between the EWG and otherproperties of the nanoparticles such as size, morphology (e.g.,plate-like, spherical-like, needle- or rod-like), oxidation state, andcrystallinity (amorphous, crystalline, or a mixture thereof). Forexample, differences in morphology can occur between AMO nanoparticlessynthesized under identical conditions except for the use of a differentEWG for surface functionalization (see FIG. 4). The surfacefunctionalization may act to “pin” the dimensions of the nanoparticles,stopping their growth. This pinning may occur on only one dimension ofthe nanoparticle, or in more than one dimension, depending upon exactsynthesis conditions.

Fourth, the character of the AMO is very sensitive to synthesisconditions and procedures. For example, differences in morphology andperformance of the AMO's nanoparticles can occur when synthesized underidentical conditions except for having two different total reactiontimes (see FIGS. 5 & 6). Experimental design methodologies can be usedto decide the best or optimal synthesis conditions and procedures toproduce a desired characteristic or set of characteristics.

Fifth, both the anion present in the precursor salt and the anionpresent in the acid contribute to the surface functionalization of theAMO. In one preferred embodiment, tin chloride precursors andhydrochloric acid are used in a synthesis of an AMO of tin. Theperformance of these particles differ from an embodiment in which tinchloride precursors and sulfuric acid are used, or from an embodiment inwhich tin sulfate precursors and hydrochloric acid are used. Therefore,matching the precursor anion and acid anion is preferred.

Sixth, when utilizing a precursor with a weak EWG and an acid with astrong EWG, or vice versa, the strongly withdrawing anion will dominatethe surface functionalization. This opens up a broader range ofsynthesis possibilities, allowing functionalization with ions that arenot readily available in both precursor salts and acids. It may alsopermit mixed functionalization with both strong and weak EWGs. In oneexample, a tin acetate precursor and phosphoric acid are used tosynthesize an AMO of tin. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis ofthe surface shows a greater atomic concentrations of phosphorous than ofthe bonds associated with acetate groups (see FIG. 7).

Seventh, and last, while the disclosed method is a general procedure forsynthesis of AMOs, the synthesis procedures and conditions may beadjusted to yield sizes, morphologies, oxidation states, and crystallinestates as are deemed to be desirable for different applications. As oneexample, catalytic applications might desire an AMO material which ismore active in visible light (see FIG. 8A) or one which is more activein ultraviolet light (see FIG. 8B).

In another example, the AMO material may be used as a battery electrode.A primary (single-use) battery application might desire an AMO withcharacteristics that lead to the highest capacity, while a secondary(rechargeable) battery application might desire the same AMO but withcharacteristics that lead to the highest cyclability (see FIG. 9). TheAMO material can result in enhanced battery performance, withoutdeterioration of battery components or gas generation (see FIG. 10).This is exactly opposite what the prior art teaches.

What is claimed:
 1. A battery cell comprising: an electrode including asurface-functionalized solid metal oxide being in nanoparticulate formhaving a particle size less than 20 nm and a cyclability against lithiumof at least 150 to 200 charge-discharge cycles wherein: thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide has, at least on its surface, apH less than 5.5 and a Hammet function H₀ greater than −12; and the pHbeing measured when a dried form of the surface-functionalized solidmetal oxide is re-suspended in water at 5 wt %.
 2. A battery cellaccording to claim 1, the pH being in a range of 2 to
 5. 3. A batterycell according to claim 1, wherein the cyclability is at least 300charge-discharge cycles.
 4. A battery cell according to claim 1, whereinthe cyclability is at least 400 charge-discharge cycles.
 5. A batterycell according to claim 1, wherein the cyclability is at least 500charge-discharge cycles.
 6. A battery cell according to claim 1, whereinthe cyclability is at least 600 charge-discharge cycles.
 7. A batterycell according to claim 1, wherein the cyclability is at least 700charge-discharge cycles.
 8. A battery cell according to claim 1, whereinthe cyclability is at least 800 charge-discharge cycles.
 9. A batterycell according to claim 1, wherein the cyclability is at least 900charge-discharge cycles.
 10. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide being surface-functionalizedwith at least one electron-withdrawing group-having a molecular weightless than
 200. 11. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide being surface-functionalizedwith at least one electron-withdrawing group-having a carbon chainlength no greater than
 4. 12. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide being surface-functionalizedwith at least one electron-withdrawing surface group selected from thegroup consisting of Cl, Br, BO₃, SO₄, PO₄, CH₃COO, C₂O₄, and C₆H₅O₇. 13.A battery cell according to claim 1, wherein a lithiation capacity ofthe surface-functionalized solid metal oxide is in a range of 900 mAh/gto at least 1400 mAh/g.
 14. A battery cell according to claim 1, furthercomprising a second electrode including lithium metal.
 15. A batterycell according to claim 1, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxidehaving a spherical morphology.
 16. A battery cell according to claim 1,the surface-functionalized solid metal oxide having an elongatedmorphology.
 17. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide having a plate morphology. 18.A battery cell according to claim 1, the surface-functionalized solidmetal oxide being substantially monodispersed.
 19. A battery cellaccording to claim 1, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxidecomprising iron oxide.
 20. A battery cell according to claim 1, a metalof the surface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising one or moreof antimony, bismuth, titanium, zirconium, manganese, or indium.
 21. Abattery cell according to claim 1, wherein the electrode is configuredas an anode.
 22. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 10 wt % to 50 wt %of the electrode.
 23. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 10 wt % to 33 wt %of the electrode.
 24. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 33 wt % to 50 wt %of the electrode.
 25. A battery cell according to claim 1, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 50 wt % to 80 wt %of the electrode.
 26. A battery cell comprising: an electrode includinga surface-functionalized solid metal oxide in nanoparticulate formhaving a particle size less than 20 nm and a and a cyclability againstlithium of at least 150 to 200 charge-discharge cycles; thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide further characterized by aformula M_(m)O_(x)/G, where M_(m) is a metal, m is at least 1 and nogreater than 5; O_(x) is total oxygen, x is at least 1 and no greaterthan 21; M_(m)O_(x) is a metal oxide; G is at least oneelectron-withdrawing surface group, and “I” makes a distinction betweenthe metal oxide and the electron-withdrawing surface group; wherein: thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide has, at least on its surface, apH less than 5.5 and a Hammet function Ho greater than −12; the pH beingmeasured when a dried form of the surface-functionalized solid metaloxide is re-suspended in water at 5 wt %.
 27. A battery cell accordingto claim 26, the pH being in a range of 2 to
 5. 28. A battery cellaccording to claim 26, wherein the cyclability is at least 300charge-discharge cycles.
 29. A battery cell according to claim 26,wherein the cyclability is at least 400 charge-discharge cycles.
 30. Abattery cell according to claim 26, wherein the cyclability is at least500 charge-discharge cycles.
 31. A battery cell according to claim 26,wherein the cyclability is at least 600 charge-discharge cycles.
 32. Abattery cell according to claim 26, wherein the cyclability is at least700 charge-discharge cycles.
 33. A battery cell according to claim 26,wherein the cyclability is at least 800 charge-discharge cycles.
 34. Abattery cell according to claim 26, wherein the cyclability is at least900 charge-discharge cycles.
 35. A battery cell according to claim 26,the surface-functionalized solid metal oxide beingsurface-functionalized with at least one electron-withdrawinggroup-having a molecular weight less than
 200. 36. A battery cellaccording to claim 26, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxidebeing surface-functionalized with at least one electron-withdrawinggroup-having a carbon chain length no greater than
 4. 37. A battery cellaccording to claim 26, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxidebeing surface-functionalized with at least one electron-withdrawingsurface group selected from the group consisting of Cl, Br, BO₃, SO₄,PO₄, CH₃COO, C₂O₄, and C₆H₅O₇.
 38. A battery cell according to claim 26,wherein a lithiation capacity of the surface-functionalized solid metaloxide is in a range of 900 mAh/g to at least 1400 mAh/g.
 39. A batterycell according to claim 26, further comprising a second electrodeincluding lithium metal.
 40. A battery cell according to claim 26, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide having a spherical morphology.41. A battery cell according to claim 26, the surface-functionalizedsolid metal oxide having an elongated morphology.
 42. A battery cellaccording to claim 26, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxidehaving a plate morphology.
 43. A battery cell according to claim 26, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide being substantiallymonodispersed.
 44. A battery cell according to claim 26, the metal beingiron.
 45. A battery cell according to claim 26, the metal selected fromthe group consisting of antimony, bismuth, titanium, zirconium,manganese, and indium.
 46. A battery cell according to claim 26, whereinthe electrode is configured as an anode.
 47. A battery cell according toclaim 26, the surface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 10 wt% to 50 wt % of the electrode.
 48. A battery cell according to claim 26,the surface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 10 wt % to 33 wt% of the electrode.
 49. A battery cell according to claim 26, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 33 wt % to 50 wt %of the electrode.
 50. A battery cell according to claim 26, thesurface-functionalized solid metal oxide comprising 50 wt % to 80 wt %of the electrode.